The Food Security Challenge

The lack of food. Increasing agricultural productivity and access to food are the primary development goals of the 21st century. Demand for food has reached new heights, and predictions of future demand are; The food-insecure population in sub-Saharan Africa is also expected to increase by up to 32 percent by 2020, whereas food insecurity is projected to decline in Latin America and Asia.Overall, the world will need 70–100 percent more food by 2050, when the population increases to 9 billion.

discouraging. Although growth in global demand for cereals will slow in the coming 40 years, demand in sub-Saharan Africa will balloon by as much as 2.6 percent per year.

The lack of nutrients. The lack of food is not the only problem. Almost one billion people were undernourished in 2010, and the lack of nutritious food has serious, long-term consequences for physical and mental health. More than one in seven of the world’s people do not receive enough protein and carbohydrates in their daily diets. These people constitute 16 percent of the developing country population.

The rising prices. Even with projected reductions in food insecurity, price spikes could keep staple food out of the reach of poor people. The 2008 price spikes led to starvation in many countries, hitting the net food importers—typically the poorest countries—the hardest. Ethiopia, Malawi, Tanzania, and Uganda experienced maize prices that were twice as high as in the previous year. In Kenya and Mozambique, prices rose by 50–85 percent, according to the United States Department of Agriculture. Sharp and unexpected price spikes can provoke riots and political instability, aggravating an already precarious food situation. FAO recently predicted that the total costs of food imports would reach a near-record level in 2010, roughly US$ 1 trillion.

The changing climate. Climate change has made the challenges of food security and rising prices even more stark. Continued release of greenhouse gases increases the likelihood of unpredictable weather and temperatures. The severe 2010 droughts and fires in Russia, Ukraine, and Kazakhstan raised wheat prices substantially, leading to grain embargos in multiple countries. Russia’s wheat exports fell by 13 million metric tons in one year.^e Pakistan’s floods are another warning of the serious climate changes facing developing countries. The loss of soil nutrients that can accompany climatic extremes makes agricultural land less productive and adds to food insecurity. This prospect is ominous, considering the consistent drop in cereal yields over the last decade.

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A role Model in Agriculture from Masasi District, Tanzania

Athmani Mochiwa, District Agriculture Extension Officer, has been working for 20 years in Masasi District, Tanzania, working to help farmers adopt new practices and technologies.  He sees his role as being the link between the farmers and the research institutes. “I’ve been involved in each and every step of the Pathways process—from the beginning to now. As an agriculture expert, my role was to advise CARE on some of the seeds to introduce and which technologies and practices to improve. I also worked to create some awareness among the villages about what the project is about.” He currently supervises a staff of 22 paraprofessionals (extension officers) and 5 ward extension officers to whom he provides active support.

Mochiwa sees Pathways as an extension of the Farmer Field School (FFS) approach, which allows farmers to see for themselves the differences between traditional and new production techniques or seed varieties. Through the farmer field school demonstration plots, adoption of new technologies happens more quickly. The critical addition of the “business” element to the Pathways Farmer Field and Business School (FFBS) approach takes the farmers first through the process of searching for a market before production.  “If you can assure farmers of a market, then you can be sure they will produce.  And with tools like the cost-benefit analysis sheet, they can improve their negotiation skills. They know the value of what they produce.”

They are particularly important for Pathways’ group members. Even when they are in mixed training groups, women put themselves behind the men. He notes, “They’re very good at doing the work and implementing, but if you ask them a question—they will wait for the men to respond. The women have to be encouraged to speak up and really feel part of the group work. In the homes, they are doing all the work, but they are not appreciated, and they are not organized. They are working as much as men, harder than men—but they need to know it’s not just for them to carry all this normal loads. Sometimes the men don’t allow their wives to join the groups. The men also need to be trained.”  The promising news, he says, is that there really is demand for this type of discussion.

“Yesterday, I went back to the village (where we tested various exercises with the community), and they asked me, ‘How did you know this would be so beneficial to us! How did you know we really needed this? When are you going to do more? We want the whole community to hear this.’ Those who attended were saying that it was really important, and that already the men wanted to change. So I told them that the paraprofessionals were going to train them on more and more, and that we were going to continue to work with them on these issues.”

The paraprofessionals left the training with documents in hand, energized to start implementing these exercises immediately. Mochiwa is confident that they will take this forward.

But the most important thing, Mochiwa emphasizes, is to provide continuous supervision and support: “If we don’t do that, the feedback and supervision, it’s like playing guitar to a goat—there will be no reaction.  After every training, we need to be in the field, and following up the work-plan that we do together. And the paraprofessionals need these interactions, so that they can share their experiences and learn from each other.”

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Why Tanzanian farmers don’t sell what they produce?

Indeed, agriculture is an important sector for Tanzania contributing up to 26 per cent of GDP. Typically, farmers produce to feed their families but they also expect to gain revenues by selling their output. When farmers make more income from the sale of their produce this leads to more development in the rural areas which ultimately impacts positively on the overall economy. This is what has been surmised from the success stories of predominantly agricultural countries, such as Malaysia and Vietnam.

In Tanzania, this kind of impact has not yet been felt - at least not on a tangible scale.  Agricultural commercialization remains marginal in the country as shown by the following statistics from 2011:

- 26 per cent of all farmers did not sell any of their crop production and so were not connected to markets.
- Only 25 per cent of farmers sold more than half of their production.
- More than two thirds of maize farmers did not sell any of their harvest and only 25 per cent of total maize production is marketed.
- Uganda and Kenya have similar statistics. On the other hand, Vietnam moved from 48 per cent of crop production being marketed in 1993 to 87 per cent in 2008.

The livestock sector is even less commercialized than the crop sector. As many as 52 per cent of livestock owners did not get any cash income out of their animals in 2011. Less than 10 per cent of the overall country livestock value is marketed.

The low rate of commercialization may be explained by many factors such as remoteness, low production, low farm-gate prices, high marketing margins, lack of information, or simply farmers’ unwillingness to participate in the market. Indeed, less than a third of Tanzanian villages have a daily or weekly market where farmers get to sell their produce. For the typical farmer, the closest market is 18 kilometers away from the village center and more often than not there is seldom any road and/or public transportation service to reach that market. Farm-gate prices received by farmers are a small share of the wholesale price of crops which averages around 60 per cent and 45 per cent for maize and paddy respectively in 2011.

The lack in agricultural commercialization raises the following questions:
- Should the government invest more in infrastructure such as roads, village markets, etc., to improve farmers’ connectivity?
- Should there be price controls to ensure farmers receive a minimum price from their produce?
- Should taxes on agricultural produce be reduced or abolished altogether?
- Can farmers be directly linked to supermarkets, agribusiness firms and processors bypassing marketing middlemen?
- Should the emergence and development of contract farming with large farms be encouraged?
- Will the SACGOT initiative help smallholder farmers increase production and get more cash income out of their produce?
- How can the mobile revolution help improve agricultural commercialization?

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GARLIC CULTIVATION AND HEALTH BENEFITS

Allium sativum, commonly known as garlic, is a species in the onion genus, Allium. Its close relatives include the onions, shallot, leek, chive, and rakkyo With a history of human use of over 7,000 years, garlic is native to central Asia, and has long been a staple in the Mediterranean region, as well as a frequent seasoning in Asia, Africa, and Europe.

Allium sativum is a bulbous plant.It grows up to 1.2 m (4 ft) in height. It produces hermaphrodite flowers. Pollination occurs by bees and other insects.

Varieties

Within the species, Allium sativum, there are also two main subspecies or varieties.

• Allium sativum called Ophioscorodon, or hard necked garlic, includes porcelain garlics, rocambole garlic, and purple stripe garlics. It is sometimes considered to be a separate species, Allium ophioscorodon.

• Allium sativum or soft-necked garlic, includes artichoke garlic, silverskin garlic, and creole garlic.

Bulb garlic is available in many forms, including fresh, frozen, dried, fermented black garlic and shelf made products (in tubes or jars). In addition, see Culinary uses for other edible parts of the garlic plant.

Cultivation

Garlic is easy to grow and can be grown year-round in mild climates. While sexual propagation of garlic is indeed possible, nearly all of the garlic in cultivation is propagated asexually, by planting individual cloves in the ground.In cold climates, cloves are planted in the autumn, about six weeks before the soil freezes, and harvested in late spring. The cloves must be planted at sufficient depth to prevent freeze/thaw which causes mold or white rot. Garlic plants are usually very hardy, and are not attacked by many pests or diseases. Garlic plants are said to repel rabbits and moles.Two of the major pathogens that attack garlic are nematodes and white rot disease, which remain in the soil indefinitely after the ground has become infected. Garlic also can suffer from pink root, a typically nonfatal disease that stunts the roots and turns them pink or red.

Garlic plants can be grown closely together, leaving enough space for the bulbs to mature, and are easily grown in containers of sufficient depth. Garlic does well in loose, dry, well drained soils in sunny locations. When selecting garlic for planting, it is important to pick large heads from which to separate cloves. Large cloves, along with proper spacing in the planting bed, will also improve head size. Garlic plants prefer to grow in a soil with a high organic material content, but are capable of growing in a wide range of soil conditions and PH levels.

There are different types or subspecies of garlic, most notably hardneck garlic and softneck garlic. The latitude where the garlic is grown affects the choice of type as garlic can be day-length sensitive. Hardneck garlic is generally grown in cooler climates; softneck garlic is generally grown closer to the equator.

Garlic scapes are removed to focus all the garlic's energy into bulb growth. The scapes can be eaten raw or cooked.

Harvesting

When to harvest garlic depends on the type. Garlic varieties are divided into early, midseason and late, but what that means depends not only on your climate zone but also on your climate in the growing year. Heat speeds them up, cold slows them down, and although the harvest window is wide if you plan to eat the garlic fresh, it's narrow if you want to ensure maximum storage life.

The bulbs are ready when most of the lower leaves have browned. The upper ones will still be green. If you've ever grown onions, it's easy to assume garlic is the same and you should wait until all the leaves have fallen over. Bad idea. By the time all the leaves are dead the bulbs will have split; they won't have the leaf sheathes they need to form wrappers and it's likely fungus disease will have found a way in.

"Lift the bulbs" is usually used to describe moving things like daffodils, but it's also a good way to think about harvesting garlic. Those heads are more delicate than they seem and any cut or bruise will shorten storage life.

Try to choose an overcast day when the soil is dry. Loosen the soil with a digging fork, inserting it well away from the heads, then lift them out of the row and place them in a flat carrier.

Storing Garlic

How to store garlic? The at-home ideal for storing garlic is between 55 and 70 degrees, with moderate humidity and good air circulation, in the light but out of the sun. We keep our garlic stored in baskets in the cold closet ( the inner cold room insulated). Those less fortunate in the storage department can punt as necessary with good results as long as they avoid the refrigerator (excess cold leads to sprouting) and plastic bags (no air = high humidity = rot).

GARLIC HEALTH BENEFITS

Antibacterial and Antiviral

Garlic is most well-known for its antibacterial and antiviral properties. They help control bacterial, viral, fungal, yeast and worm infections. Fresh garlic is thought to play a role in preventing food poisoning by killing bacteria like E. coli, Salmonella enteritidis, etc.

To treat skin infections

The chemical ajoene found in garlic may help treat fungal skin infections like ringworm and athlete’s foot.

Blood thinning

The anti-clotting properties of ajoene found in garlic help in preventing the formation of blood clots in the body. Hence, it may also increase the risk of bleeding after surgery.

Reduce blood pressure

Angiotensin II is a protein that helps our blood vessels contract thereby increasing the blood pressure. Allicin in garlic blocks the activity of angiotensin II and helps in reducing blood pressure. The polysulphides present in garlic are converted into a gas called hydrogen sulphide by the red blood cells. Hydrogen sulphide dilates our blood vessels and helps control blood pressure.

Protect heart

Garlic protects our heart against cardiovascular problems like heart attacks and atherosclerosis. This cardio-protective property can be attributed to various factors. With age, the arteries tend to lose their ability to stretch. Garlic may help reduce this and may also protect the heart from the damaging effects of free oxygen radicals. The sulphur-containing compounds of garlic also prevent our blood vessels from becoming blocked and slow the development of atherosclerosis (hardening of the arteries). The anti-clotting properties of ajoene help prevent clots from forming inside the blood vessels.

Reduce cholesterol

Garlic has the ability to moderately lower our blood triglycerides and total cholesterol and reduce arterial plaque formation.

Combat allergies

Garlic is known to have anti-inflammatory property. It can help the body fight against allergies. The anti-arthritic property of garlic is due to diallyl sulphide and thiacremonone. Garlic has been show to improve allergic airway inflammation (allergic rhinitis). Raw garlic juice may be used to immediately stop the itching due to rashes and bug bites.

Remedy for respiratory problems

Daily use of garlic might reduce the frequency and number of colds. Its antibacterial properties help in treating throat irritations. Garlic may also reduce the severity of upper respiratory tract infections. Its benefits in disorders of the lungs like asthma, difficulty of breathing, etc. make it a priceless medicine. Its ability to promote expectoration makes it irreplaceable in chronic bronchitis.

Diabetes

Garlic increases insulin release and regulates blood sugar levels in diabetics.

Effective against warts and corns

Applying fat dissolving garlic extracts to corns on the feet and warts on the hands is thought to improve these conditions.

Cancer prevention

Daily intake of garlic has been found to lower risk of most types of cancer. This anti-cancer property is due to allyl sulphides found in garlic. PhIP, a type of heterocyclic amine (HCA), has been associated with increased incidence of breast cancer among women. According to studies, diallyl sulphide found in garlic inhibits the transformation of PhIP into carcinogens.

Improve iron metabolism

Ferroportin is a protein which helps in iron absorption and release. Diallyl sulphides in garlic increase production of ferroportin and help improve iron metabolism.

Stir up passions

Garlic’s aphrodisiac property is due to its ability to increase the circulation.

Toothaches

Simply put some crushed garlic clove directly on the affected tooth can help relieve toothaches due to its antibacterial and analgesic properties. But be aware that it can be irritating to the gum.

Reduce weight

Many researchers believe that obesity is a state of long-term low-grade inflammation. According to recent research, garlic may help to regulate the formation of fat cells in our body. Pre-adipocytes are converted into fat cells (adipocytes) through inflammatory system activity. The anti-inflammatory property of 1, 2-DT (1, 2-vinyldithiin) found in garlic may help inhibit this conversion. This may help prevent weight gain.

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EGGPLANT GROWING

A classic eggplant is deep purple and pear-shaped, but when you grow your own, you can try a cornucopia of other colors and shapes, from elongated lavender and white 'Fairy Tale' to snow white 'Snowy' to round violet-blushed 'Rosa Bianca'. But to succeed with eggplants, you'll need to supply them with steadily warm growing conditions for at least three months. Eggplants growing in cold soil or exposed to chilly weather will sulk and are more prone to insect and disease problems.

Planting: Give eggplants a head start on the growing season by starting them indoors, 6 to 9 weeks before the average last frost. Soak seeds overnight to encourage germination; sow them ¼ inch deep in a loose, fine medium, such as vermiculite. Use bottom heat to maintain a soil temperature of 80° to 90°F for the 8 to 10 days required for sprouting. Transplant seedlings to individual pots once they reach 3 inches. When outside nighttime air temperatures are above 50°F, gradually expose them to the outdoors to harden them off. Keep transplanting your seedlings into larger pots as you wait for both outdoor air and soil to warm up to at least 70°F.
OKRA
Okra, native to Africa and a beautiful relative of hibiscus, was brought to North America in the 1600s. This tropical plant quickly became popular in the Deep South both as a side dish and as a thickening for gumbo and stews. It can, however, thrive in any climate where corn will grow. Depending on the cultivar, the large-flowered, fast-growing plants reach 2 to 6 feet tall. Varieties with colorful stems and leaves, such as 'Burgundy', make attractive garden borders.

Planting
Okra needs full sun. It will grow in ordinary garden soil but does best in fertile loam, particularly where a nitrogen-fixing crop, such as early peas, grew previously.

In the South, plant the first crop in the early spring and a second crop in June. In short-season areas, start plants indoors 6 weeks before setting them out (3 to 4 weeks after the last frost date). Sow two seeds per peat pot and clip off the weaker seedling.

When seeding okra directly in the ground, wait until after the soil has warmed and the air temperature is at least 60°F. Use fresh seed, and soak it overnight or nick each seed coat with a file to encourage germination. Sow seed 1/2 inch deep in light soil and 1 inch deep in heavy soil; spacing is 3 inches apart in rows 3 feet apart. Thin seedlings to 18 to 24 inches apart, always leaving the strongest of the young plants.

Growing guidelines
When okra is 4 inches tall, mulch to keep out weeds and conserve moisture. Water during dry spells. Every 3 to 4 weeks, side-dress with compost or feed with compost tea. Read about making compost tea. In areas with long, hot summers, cut the plants back almost to ground level in midsummer and fertilize to produce a second crop.

Problems
Okra seldom succumbs to pests or diseases. Hand pick any stinkbugs that appear; these light green, shield-shaped bugs cause misshapen pods. To control corn earworms, cabbage loopers, aphids, or flea beetles, go to the Top Ten Garden Insect Pests. Fusarium wilt, a soilborne disease, is sometimes a problem in hot regions. If the disease causes leaves to yellow and wilt, pull and destroy affected plants. Crop rotation is the best preventive measure.

Harvesting
About 50 to 60 days after planting, edible pods will start to appear. They are tough when mature, so harvest daily with a sharp knife when they are no more than finger sized and when stems are still tender and easy to cut. Pick frequently and the plants will keep producing until killed by frost. Be sure to remove and compost any mature pods you might have missed earlier.

Many people find their skins are sensitive to the pods' prickly spines, so wear gloves and long sleeves when harvesting, or plant a spineless variety such as 'Clemson Spineless'

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Practioners Waste Management Request

Despite initiatives by the Tanzanian government to control the problem of solid waste, the problem stays a threat to the coastal population, marine and coastal environment. Both financial and technical interventions are required for provision of appropriate technologies, institutional capacity building and strengthening and human resources development.

The challenge is, with increased urbanisation (current population is estimated at 4.10m people, with solid waste generation amounting to 3100 Tonnes/ Day while the amount being properly collected and disposed off is 1200 Tonnes/ Day (39%). Makoba (2008, p. 14) points out a current population growth rate of 4.9% per annum for the city of Dar es Salaam. This means there is an increased population and undoubtedly increased rate of solid-waste generation and the DCC is bound to come up with effective strategies for managing the solid wastes, if the solutions are to be sustainable. 

 

Moreover, the recently closed dumpsite at Mtoni along the seashore largely impacts the coastal ecosystem in the sense that leachate spills off into the ocean, bioaccumulation through heavy metal impacts into the ocean and its ecosystem particularly fish which people consume and insufficient sunlight that impacts the marine biodiversity. The impacts are many include dirtying the ocean water towards inner-ocean by the solid waste and by leachate dripping-offfrom decomposing waste and scavengers; all these changing the coastal ecosystem.

 

The goal of this study was to improve solid waste management and reduce pollution in order to protect human health as well as to enhance the quality of the coastal and marine environment in Dar es Salaam. The focus was on privatization and refuse collection charges.

 

Findings showed that the collection of solid waste in Dar es Salaam has been hampered partly by poor infrastructure and equipment, management arrangements which have not adequately coordinated the interventions of the different actors before and after decentralization of the collection service, inefficient collection and management of the refuse collection charges, designing fault with solid waste collection point, lack of a proper landfill, among others.

 

Recommendations emphasise on awareness campaigning at all levels of the system, to educate residents on the necessity of cost sharing for services and threats associated with improper disposal of solid waste. Others are promoting political will across all leadership levels, adopting a two level contractors’ structure and increasing the solid waste contracts to 5 years, redesign the primary waste collection points and the Dar es Salaam City Council to put in place strategies for obtaining an engineered landfill site since this is a guarantee for final disposal of solid waste in a secure manner by minimizing the impacts on the environment.

 

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